Synopsis
Diagnosis of
abdominal pain in pregnant patient can be confounded by several factors
including nonspecific leukocytosis, displacement of structures by enlarging
uterus, difficult abdominal examination and nonspecific nausea and vomiting. Accurate diagnosis is important as
delay in diagnosis can be detrimental to both the mother and fetus. MR is the preferred method of
imaging the abdomen after ultrasound in pregnant patients due to the lack of
ionizing radiation and excellent soft tissue contrast along with the ability to
evaluate multiple additional structures due to the large field of view
possible.Introduction
Diagnosis of
abdominal pain in pregnant patient can be confounded by several factors
including nonspecific leukocytosis, displacement of structures by enlarging
uterus, difficult abdominal examination and nonspecific nausea and vomiting 1,2. Accurate diagnosis is important as
delay in diagnosis can be detrimental to both the mother and fetus 3. MR is the preferred method of
imaging the abdomen after ultrasound in pregnant patients due to the lack of
ionizing radiation and excellent soft tissue contrast along with the ability to
evaluate multiple additional structures due to the large field of view
possible.
Safety of MRI in pregnancy
The risks related to MR imaging are teratogenic and not carcinogenic.
Primary concern of MRI is heating associated with the radiofrequency pulse B0
strength which may affect cell migration during first trimester and acoustic
noise produced during imaging which may damage the fetal hearing 4. The ACR Guidance
document on MR safe practices states that MR imaging can be used at any
gestational age when the information gathered is likely to alter treatment and
when it cannot be obtained by other nonionizing exams and when the exam cannot
be delayed until after delivery 5. Even
though the risks of cell migration injury remain theoretical in humans and no
detrimental effect has been reported, the International commission on
nonionizing radiation protection (ICNIRP) recommends postponement of elective
MR imaging until after first trimester 6,7.
Contrast issues
Even though there have been some reports of post-implantation fetal loss and
abnormalities in animals, to date there have been no known adverse effects to
human fetuses when clinically recommended dosages of gadolinium-based contrast
agents (GBCAs) have been given to pregnant women 8,9. However, no well controlled studies of teratogenic effects of these media
in pregnant women have been performed.
Gadolinium chelate traverses the placenta and may accumulate in the
amniotic cavity. The contrast medium cycles through the fetal gastrointestinal
tract and genitourinary tract and can remain there for an indefinite period of
time, however recent studies show that only traces of contrast remaining in the
fetus after 24 hours. The free gadolinium ion is toxic to the fetus. When the
gadolinium chelates accumulate in the amniotic fluid, there is the potential
for dissociation of the toxic free gadolinium ion producing a potential risk
for the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in the child or
mother. The U.S. FDA has classified
gadolinium-based agents as category C drugs. The ACR Committee on Drugs and
Contrast Media published in 2015 recommended that “each case should be reviewed
carefully by members of the clinical and radiology services and a GBCA should
be administered only when there is a potential significant benefit to the
patient or fetus that outweighs the possible but unknown risk of fetal exposure
to free gadolinium ions”. They also recommend that informed consent be obtained
from the patient after discussion with the referring physician. The radiologist
should also document that the information requested from the MRI study cannot
be acquired without the use of IV contrast and it affects the care of the
patient and/or fetus. The Contrast Media Safety Committee of the European
Society of Urogenital Radiology in their revised guidelines in May 2012
recommend using the smallest possible dose of one of the most stable GBCAs and
only for the a very strong indication for enhanced MRI. They do not recommend
any monitoring of the neonate after the mother has been given GBCA during
pregnancy.
Indications
The most
common indication for MRI in pregnancy is acute appendicitis with a prevalence
of 50-70 per 1000 patients 10,11. The biggest difference in
evaluation of appendicitis in pregnant vs non-pregnant patients is the location
of the appendix. Due to the pressure from the enlarging gravid uterus, the
appendix is pushed superiorly into the abdomen. The risk to the fetus from a
perforated appendix is approximately 20% compared to risk from surgery of about
3%. Criteria used for an abnormal appendix are similar in pregnant and
non=-pregnant patients.
Nonspecific
abdominal pain caused by disease of the gallbladder, urinary tract, bowel,
pancreas, ovary and liver can all have similar manifestations. US is the
preferred initial exam of choice, however MRI can be performed in equivocal
cases if necessary.
Acknowledgements
No acknowledgement found.References
1. Andersen B, Nielsen TF. Appendicitis
in pregnancy: diagnosis, management and complications. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1999;78(9):758-762.
2. Cappell
MS, Friedel D. Abdominal pain during pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2003;32(1):1-58.
3. Melnick
DM, Wahl WL, Dalton VK. Management of general surgical problems in the pregnant
patient. Am J Surg. 2004;187(2):170-180.
4. McJury
M, Shellock FG. Auditory noise associated with MR procedures: a review. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2000;12(1):37-45.
5. Expert
Panel on MRS, Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, et al. ACR guidance document on MR safe
practices: 2013. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2013;37(3):501-530.
6. Wang
PI, Chong ST, Kielar AZ, et al. Imaging of pregnant and lactating patients:
part 1, evidence-based review and recommendations. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;198(4):778-784.
7. Tirada
N, Dreizin D, Khati NJ, Akin EA, Zeman RK. Imaging Pregnant and Lactating
Patients. Radiographics. 2015;35(6):1751-1765.
8. Colletti
PM, Sylvestre PB. Magnetic resonance imaging in pregnancy. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 1994;2(2):291-307.
9. De
Santis M, Straface G, Cavaliere AF, Carducci B, Caruso A. Gadolinium
periconceptional exposure: pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2007;86(1):99-101.
10. Tamir
IL, Bongard FS, Klein SR. Acute appendicitis in the pregnant patient. Am J Surg. 1990;160(6):571-575;
discussion 575-576.
11. Vu L,
Ambrose D, Vos P, Tiwari P, Rosengarten M, Wiseman S. Evaluation of MRI for the
diagnosis of appendicitis during pregnancy when ultrasound is inconclusive. J Surg Res. 2009;156(1):145-149.